PREVENTION OF DECAY

 MOVING TOWARD PREVENTION OF DECAY

The first glimmer of hope for avoidance came with the discovery some 30 years ago of the value of fluoridated drinking water. Ingested regularly during childhood while the teeth were being formed, fluoride could combine with the developing enamel to make it more acid-resistant. It could halve the incidence of decay in children. Currently, some 3,000 communities serving about one third of the total population have fluoridated water. 

Many dentists in no fluoridated areas now prescribe fluoride tablets, or vitamins with fluoride added, for children. Another advance came about 20 years ago with the discovery that painting a sodium fluoride solution directly on the enamel could cut decay 25 to 40 percent. This, however, was true only for children up to about age 15. And the applications, which took quite some time, did not add extra protection for children in fluoridated water communities. 

After some searching, scientists next turned up stannous fluoride, a combination of tin and fluorine. One application a year of stannous fluoride proved far more effective than sodium fluoride applications. It added to the protective effect of ingested fluoride. And it worked for adults as well as children.

There followed incorporation of fluoride in toothpastes-to provide, in effect, a daily topical fluoride application that could supplement periodic applications by the dentist. In 1960, for the first time, the American Dental Association established a therapeutic category for dentifrices. 

Where before toothpastes had been considered aids to cleaning and no more, now, with fluoride added, they could also reduce decay by one third or more. At that point, the picture was this: Ingested fluoride could help endow youngsters with teeth better able to resist decay. Topical applications by a dentist and use offluoridated toothpaste could increase protection. Combined, the measures could reduce decay by as much as 90 percent in children. 

Another important development was to come when work of the Armed Forces demonstrated dramatically that adults, too, could benefit. These very same methods provide for even further improvement in reducing decay. 

MYXEDEMA-SIMPLE GOITER-Pregnant women

MYXEDEMA

 In this condition produced by thyroid under functioning, the patient is sluggish physically and mentally, cannot stand the cold, sometimes develops a tongue so large and thick that it sticks out of the mouth. Treatment, by administration of thyroid hormone, usually brings marked improvement. Some babies are born with thyroid deficiency. 

Any child who seems to be developing too slowly-for example, in following objects with his eyes or holding his head erect-should be checked by a physician for thyroid deficiency. The earlier such a child is treated, the better the chances for normal development.

SIMPLE GOITER

 To function normally, the thyroid must have iodine. Lacking sufficient iodine, it cannot produce the normal quantity of hormone. In an effort to compensate, the gland enlarges until a noticeable lump may appear in the throat. The swelling, or goiter, may become large enough to interfere with breathing or swallowing. 

Thyroid hormoneconsists of about 65 percent iodine, but the amount of iodine needed in food to avoid goiter is small. Iodized table salt-an amount no more than ordinarily used with meals-is enough, even in areas where the soil is completely lacking in natural iodine. Too much iodine may cause a skin eruption. 

Although consuming iodine does not cute a simple goiter, it will prevent one and will stop an existing goiter from enlarging further. Anyone with even a small goiter should have medical attention for it. 

It is especially important for expectant mothers who live in regions such as the Rocky Mountain States, the Great Lakes Basin, and the Upper Mississippi River Valley, where the soil is lacking in iodine, to follow doctor's orders about the amount of iodine they need. Insufficient iodine in the diet may cause a mother to produce a child with thyroid deficiency.

However, most pregnant women develop a slight enlargement of the thyroid, and this should cause no undue worry. 

Harmones and glands - overactivity and underactivity

Many hormones

The Endocrine Glands I 263 is known to pour out a dozen or so; the adrenals more than 30. The following table shows a number of the hormones and some of the dis- eases resulting when a gland is too active or not active enough: Disease Caused by Exophthalmic goiter (also Myxedema, called Graves' disease or cretinism (in hyperthyroidism) infants)

ROLL CALL OF THE GLANDS 

The Islets of Langerhans Diabetes is the most familiar of the diseases caused by endocrine gland disorder. GLAND Thyroid Parathyroid Islets of Langerhans (pancreas) Adrenal Cortex Medulla Gonads Female (ovary) Male (testis) Pituitary anterior lobe posterior lobe HORMONE Thyroxin Parathormone Insulin Cortin, cortisone, etc. Adrenaline Estrogen (estrin) Androgen (testosterone) Corticotropin, thyrotropin, gonadotropins, lactogenic hormone, prolactin Vasopressin, oxytocin

OVERACTIVITY 

Hyperparathyroidism (osteitisfibrosacystica) Hyperinsulinism Cushing's syndrome, adrenal hypercorticism, adrenal virilismHyperadrenalism, pheochromocytoma Menstrual irregularities Excessive virilism Cushing's syndrome (hyper adrenalism) r gigantism (acromegaly) 

UNDERACTIVITY Parathyroid tetany Diabetes mellitus Addison's disease May contribute to symptoms of Addison's disease Menopause Eunuchism Dwarfism, Simmonds' disease Diabetes insipidus The islets of Langerhans of the pancreas secrete insulin.

This hormone enables the body to use, or burn, sugar and starch after they have been converted by digestive juices into glucose. The body must utilize glucose (sugar) to provide heat and energy and to help in utilization of other foods. Any sugar the body does not immediately need is stored in the tissues to be drawn on later, like money in the bank. 

When the islets fail to provide insulin to spark this process, the sugar passes unused into the blood and is eliminated in the urine. The quantity of urine increases, causing the diabetic to become thirsty and to drink more fluid, which in turn is quickly eliminated. Not all reasons why the islets may fail to produce enough insulin are known. 

Eye sight and Television viewing - How it affects?

Television Viewing

Television will not hurt the eyes if you have a fairly large screen, do not keep the room in total darkness, do not sit too close to the set or at an angle, and do not watch steadily for extended periods. It can be wise to be arbitrary about children's viewing, setting an hour as the limit for Swimming Rarely does swimming cause ear trouble unless there is a nose, sinus, or throat infection. Learning how to breathe in through the mouth and out through the nose during swimming is a helpful preventive measure. In the case of a perforated eardrum, however, you should have your doctor's permission and advice before going swimming. 

Once in a while, an eardrum may be perforated by the pressure of high diving; pain, and sometimes bleeding, will result. If you see a doctor immediately, there will probably be no permanent harm from such an accident. Deafness There are many degrees of hearing impairment. Mild hearing loss may go unnoticed. When the loss is great enough to produce some difficulty in communication, the condition is commonly called "hard of hearing." When so much hearing ability is lost that a loud voice, even a voice amplified by a hearing aid, cannot be heard, the condition is called deafness. 

Hearing impairment may stem from an inner ear problem; essentially, this is nervedeafness. Often, the impairment is of the conductive type in which there is no nerve involvement but rather some defect in the conduction of sound waves in the outer ear canal or the middle ear. An infection, injury, or congenital deformity may close the ear canal, and the canal may need surgical reconstruction. If an eardrum has been partially destroyed by infection, plastic surgery may repair it. If the middle ear bones are damaged by infection, corrective surgery may help.

Otosclerosis, a common form of impairment, involves the stapes, one of the middle ear bones. Because of overgrowth of bone, the stapes cannot vibrate properly and so is unable to transmit sound waves. An operation to mobilize the stapes has restored hearing for many people. And other surgery may be used when the mobilization operation is not suitable. 

Many types of hearing impairment can be overcome to a marked degree, even almost completely, with hearing aids. It is tragic to think of all the people who lead handicapped lives because they believe that others will make fun of them if they wear an aid. If this was ever true -and we doubt it-it is certainly no longer true with aids that bear no resemblance to trumpets. 

Modern devices are well designed and effective when properly chosen. Since various hearing impairments differ, it is important to find an instrument suited to the wearer's specific needs. A specialist, not a salesman, can give you the right advice.  Consist of having your own and your children's hearing tested at regular intervals and of seeing your doctor the moment you or a child feel any pain, note any ear discharge, experience any unusual buzzing, ringing, or pressure in the ear, or become aware of any seeming diminution of hearing acuity. 

Eye care

 It is foolhardy not to have regular examinations of the eyes-once a year after age 50, less often at younger ages. More and more now, examinations till glaucoma are being included in preventive medicine checkups. Cataracts can be removed surgically at any time and at practically any age. There is no need to wait for a cataract to become complete, or "ripe," as was once believed. Depending on the condition of the lens, the retina, and other factors, an occasional cataract will be treated without surgery. Eye Infections Today, even such severe chronic eye infections as trachoma can be cured with antibiotics and other medicines. 

Don't decide for yourself that an eye infection is nothing to worry about. Of course, there are minor eye infections. Most common is conjunctivitis, or pinkeye, which causes the eyes to redden and the lids to swell and usually stick together in the morning. Many home remedies are used. We think the best approach is:

(1) Wash the eye with warm water using a disposable tissue or cloth (otherwise the infection may be spread to the other eye or another person).

(2) Apply yellow oxide of mercury ophthalmic ointment generously on the lids, and close the eye. Use the ointment morning and night.

(3) Apply hot compresses, moistened with clean water, for five minutes} three or four times daily

If the eye does not improve quickly, see your physician. But if you may, on occasion, treat a mild case of pinkeye, it is unwise to diagnose and self-treat any other form of eye infection. 

Your eyes are simply too precious to be toyed with. If you can't reach a doctor and you find your eyes are severely inflamed or have pus in them, use this emergency measure: Put a generous amount of ophthalmic ointment containing penicillin or some other antibiotic on the inner lids, and then close the eyes so the ointment gets at the eyeballs. Repeat every three hours until you can get medical help. If your physician is not available, go to his hospital's emergency room.

 It is safe for you to treat an occasional style-a pimple-like formation in the tiny glands of the eyelid. Apply hot compresses every two hours for 15 minutes at a time. If the stye does not open and drain and heal in a few days, be sure to see your doctor. See him, too, if you have styes repeatedly. 

Cleaning the Eyes When the eyelids become irritated by wind or dust, you can relieve them by washing them with a warm salt solution, a level teaspoonful of alt to a pint of water. Be sure the utensils you use have been thoroughly leaned and scalded. You may use an eyedropper or eyecup, as you prefer. 

Eye

Eye 

In one experiment, when subjects were asked to estimate the size of coins and cardboard disks that were exactly the same size, they guessed, on the average, that the coins were one-fourth larger than the disks-and the poorer off financially a subject was, the more he overestimated coin size. The eyes even serve a purpose beyond seeing. 

They have a marked effect on taste, as shown by studies at a U.S. Air Force medical laboratory where volunteers were fed in a completely darkened room. Unable to see the food, they could detect no difference in taste between white and whole-wheat bread or between various canned foods. Eye Problems and Their Prevention Defects and diseases to which the eyes are susceptible account, in part, for the fact that there are nearly half a million people in the United States who are totally blind and two million more who are partially blind. 

But in part, too, this unpleasant fact is the result of misunderstanding, neglect, and delay in seeking aid, for many potentially blinding disorders can be prevented, or arrested, or even cured with prompt attention. In addition, of course, about 40 percent of the population wears glasses, indicating that the vision of almost one of every two people leaves something to be desired.

Three common eye defects-farsightedness, nearsightedness, and astigmatism-are the result of simple optical aberrations in the eye. If the lens is to focus light rays directly on the retina, it must be at the proper distance. When the eyeball is too short, the lens will be too close;  Prevention: Body conversely, if the eyeball is elongated, the lens will be too far away. Moreover, to accommodate to both near and far objects, the lens must change its curvature to maintain proper focus. At birth, the average baby has foreshortened eyeballs and is far- sighted. 

From about age 6 to age 20, the eyeballs elongate. After about age 45, people tend to become farsighted again because the lens, going through a normal hardening process, loses some of its ability to change curvature to focus on near objects.

Nearsightedness is usually due to a lengthening of the eyeball, an increase in curvature of the cornea, or a change in refraction of the lens. Astigmatism is usually caused by an irregularity of the shape of the cornea. When the cornea does not have a perfect curve, images is distorted. The effect can be similar to that of looking through a dirt- streaked pane of glass. 

Fortunately, nearsightedness, farsightedness, and astigmatism are readily corrected with eyeglasses. And it is important that these conditions be corrected, for both comfort and good eye health. If, for example, one eye is more effective than the other, the good eye may do all the work, which could be bad for it and also for the one that is not being used.

This is why children's eyes should be checked at an early age, even before school, and why you should mind your own eyesight, remembering that changes do occur with time. Have your eyes examined as soon as you find yourself holding things off at a distance to see them, or when you notice that you no longer see as well as you once did in poor light. 

Always have an eye doctor examine your eyes and prescribe any necessary lenses. It is true, of course, that eyeglasses are an expense and possibly a bit of a nuisance. But what a joy it is to see properly and to know you are protecting your precioussight. 

Peripheral nerves

Peripheral nerves may be cut, bruised, or torn by fractured bones or blows. A torn or cut nerve should be treated by a specialist in such work. If your doctor advises it, by all means go even hundreds of miles for such treatment as a means of preventing permanent paralysis and other serious consequences of nerve injuries. 

It will be apparent that you can do much to help guard the health of your nervous system by observing commonsense precautions to avoid accidents and injuries and by following suggestions made in many pages of this book about maintaining general good health. 

In addition, you can best influence the nervous system, including the autonomic, to exercise effective control over body functions by maintaining good mental health and by making use of suggestions given in the next section of this book on coping with the tension and stresses that all of us must expect to encounter.

Parkinsonism- Nervous system- thallium toxicity- spinal cord

The nerves extending out from the system go to glands such as salivary, sweat, liver, and pancreas, and to muscles such as those in the iris of the eyes, heart, stomach, intestines, and bladder. They also go to muscles in the walls of blood vessels. 

The parasympathetic system consists of two major nerves. One, the vagus, comes from the medulla and sends branches through the chest and abdomen. The other, the pelvic, arises from the spinalcord in the area of the hip and sends branches to organs in the lower part of the body. As examples of how the two systems work: The sympathetic dilates the pupil of the eye, while the parasympathetic constricts the pupil. Sympatheticnerves speed up the heartbeat; parasympathetic slows it down.

The sympathetic constricts blood vessels and raises blood pressure; the parasympathetic expands the vessels and lowers pressure. The autonomic nervous system is influenced strongly by emotions. For example, when you experience a dry mouth and goose pimples because of fear, the sympathetic system is at work. Preventing Nervous System Damage Diseases such as multiple sclerosis and Parkinsonism affect the brain and/ or spinal cord. These are discussed elsewhere in this book. 

Other maladies affect the peripheral nerves which connect the brain and spinal cord with the muscles, organs, skin, eyes, etc. When a peripheral nerve is affected, the condition is called neuritis or neuralgia. And since a peripheral nerve usually contains both pain and motor fibers, painful symptoms plus some paralysis of muscle power may occur. Certain toxic materials such as lead, arsenic, and mercury may pro- duce a generalized poisoning of the peripheral nerves, with pain, tender- ness, and paralysis of the limbs.

There are many other causes of generalized neuritis, including alcoholism, vitamin deficiencies, some types of allergy, diabetes, severe vomiting of pregnancy, thallium toxicity, and some viral and bacterial infections. While some attacks of generalized neuritis begin with fever and other symptoms of acute illness, on the other hand, neuritis caused by lead and alcohol toxicity comes on very slowly over a Course of weeks or months. In most instances, an attack of generalized neuritis will subside when the toxic substance is eliminated. 

Rest and good diet containing extra vitamins, especially of the B group, are helpful. Physiotherapy may relieve the pain or paralysis. Effective prevention of generalized neuritis is based on knowledge of the danger of poor nutrition, chronic alcoholism, industrial hazards, and infections-all discussed elsewhere in this book. Frequently, instead of a generalized irritation of the nerves, only one nerve is afflicted. 

For example, if you sleep in a cold draft which blows on one side of the face, next morning the facial nerve on that side may be temporarily paralyzed. When produced by drafts, the paralysis clears up after some days or weeks. After such an episode revealing your sensitivity to drafts, you will want to take steps, of course, to avoid recurrence. 

The central nervous system

The central nervous system works in more than one way. There are simple reflex actions and there are reactions at higher levels. Consider, for example, what happens when you unexpectedly touch a hot object. Instantly, your hand is jerked away. The pain stimulated the receptor endings in a sensory nerve in the skin. Nerve impulses immediately flowed along a fiber, passed through a sensory branch of a spinal nerve and into the cord. 

There then followed a quick transfer across a synap of a central nerve in the cord, another transfer across another synapse t a motor nerve, which then passed impulses out of the cord and along a motor fiber of a spinal nerve through the body to the muscles. The muscles reacted; your hand was jerked away. It took just a fraction of a second for the entire reflex-an involuntary process, requiring n thought, assuring immediate helpful action.

 But there was another reaction, too-at higher levels. Although you were not consciously aware of the reflex as it happened, you very quickly learned about it through another transfer in the cord.

The areas sent messages to your muscles, and you moved to the tap. And, as you probably realize, while all this was going on, your emotional centers entered the picture and you had some feelings-perhaps of anger, or disgust, or both-about the event. 

The Autonomic Nervous System A second nervous system, the autonomic, provides for control, on an automatic basis, of vital internal organs. The autonomic system has two nicely balanced parts-the sympathetic and the parasympathetic-which oppose each other, much like accelerator and brake of a car. In so doing, they make possible a precise balance. The sympathetic system begins at the base of the brain and runs along both sides of the spinal column. 

Human nervous system - Central Nervous System

Nerve cells are so specialized that they have lost the ability to repro- duce themselves. When a neuron dies, it cannot be replaced. However, when an axon is damaged, if the damage is at some distance from the cell body, the neuron will not wither away. The damaged section of theaxon may perish but often the remaining section will grow.

 The growth may be slow, although studies in some animals show a growth rate as fast as an inch a week. Even when a neuron is completely destroyed, all is not necessarily lost; sometimes other pathways may' come into use to serve the function of the destroyed unit. " Man's endowment of neurons is vast. For example, the ant, often considered to be a remarkably wise little insect, capable of constructing cunning houses and leading a relatively complex social life, has some 250 neurons.

 Man has billions, and the number can be looked upon as The Brain and Nervous System I 243 an indication of his tremendous potential if he chooses to use them all, and wisely. Actually, man has two nervous systems, not just one.

The Central Nervous System The central nervous system includes the brain and spinal cord. The spinal cord is suspended in a cylinder formed by the bones of the spine. The meninges, which cover the brain, also continue down to serve as protective coverings for the cord. And cerebrospinal fluid, between mid- dle and inner membranes, cushions the cord, just as it does the brain, from shock. 

The central nervous system connects to every part of the body by means of 43 pairs of nerves. Twelve of these, the cranial nerves, go to the eyes and other sense organs, the heart, and other internal organs. They are called olfactory, optic, oculomotor, trochlear, trigeminal, abducens, facial, auditory, glossopharyngeal, vagus, accessory, and hypoglossal.

The 31 other nervepairs go to skeletal muscles throughout the body. 

They branch off the cord between the bones of the spine. One of a pair goes to the right side of the body, the other to the left. Outside the cord, each nerve splits. One branch carries sensory-type fibers-for incoming messages-to the cord; the other carries motor-type fibers. 

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

The brain is likened to a control center, then the nervous system can be thought of as a two-way communications network through which informational messages flow to the control center and command messages are transmitted from the center. The informational, or sensory, messages come from the outside world through the sense organs (eyes, ears, etc.); they also come from within the body itself-there are billions of receptors all over the body concerned with various functions. 

The nervous system is organized to give you essential voluntary control over many actions. It is also set up to relieve you of concern with routine matters. Thus, for example, you eat dinner and decide whether you like or dislike a certain dish and wish to finish it.

On the other hand, you walk along, stumble on an object; without thought on your part, the muscles of the legs are automatically commanded to react, and one leg is extended and the other flexed so you maintain your balance. How Nerves Work Messages travel along nerves, at speeds of as much as 250 miles an hour, as the result of both electrical and chemical action. 

A nerve cell, or neuron, when viewed under a microscope, looks like a tiny blob, rounded or irregular in shape, with one or more threads extending from it. The blob is the actual nerve cell body; the threads are nerve fibers. Shorter fibers, called dendrites, bring messages to the cell body; they may range from a very small fraction of an inch to several feet in length.

One fiber, longer than the others and called the axon, transmits messages away from the cell body. A nerve impulse, going through the nerve network, travels over the fibers of many cells. As it reaches the end of one fiber, it jumps a gap, called a synapse, to the next fiber. Chemicals produced and stored around synapses can help the impulse to jump the gaps or can block the impulse. Some drugs that act in the nervous system-some of those for high blood pressure, for example-accomplish their tasks by affecting the chemicals at the synapses. 

The Brain and Nervous system

The pons, a saddle-like mass of coarse fibers, connects the medulla with the higher brain centers. The medulla, or spinalbulb, just below the pons and at the upper end of the spinal cord, is a switching center for nerve impulses to and from higher brain centers.

 It also contains centers which, as we will see, work through the autonomic nervous system to control heart action, changes in artery walls, breathing, and other activities that go on without our conscious effort. The cerebellum, or little brain, is divided into hemispheres like the cerebrum. The front and back areas control muscle tone. Equilibrium is the concern of an area behind the back lobe. The two main hemispheres coordinate voluntary movements.

It is characteristic of the intricate organization of brain and nervous system that the cerebellum receives nervous messages from the balance mechanism of the inner ears, from the muscles and joints, and from centers deep in the brain, and then sends impulses to the muscles adjusting their tone and coordinating their action. Are you able, with eyes closed, to touch the tip of your nose? Can you both rub your stomach and pat your head simultaneously? Then your cerebellum is still at work.

Protection for the Brain

The brain is an excellent example of built-in protection provided by nature for a vital organ, Despiteprocesses in the brain, brain tissue itself is quite sturdy stuff, tough and resilient. It is protected against injury in a number of ways. A tough bony cage, the skull, surrounds the brain completely. It takes a very strong blow to break the skull. The skull itself is protected by the scalp, which can absorb some tough blows. The scalp is made up of five layers which medical students remember by an acrostic: S is for skin (and hair in which in women constitutes considerable protection), and the skin of the scalp is the thickest in the body; C is for the cutaneous tissue, a layer under the skin; A is for the aponeurosis, a tough layer of fibrous tissue which helps the scalp slide around; L is for some loose tissue;

Still more protection is provided

 Inside the brain are four reservoirs, the ventricles, which contain cerebrospinal fluid. This fluid circulates around the brain. Thus, the brain practically floats on and in fluid. And engineers will tell you that this is an ideal "shock absorber" system. Finally, inside the bone of the skull the brain is wrapped in layers of tissue. One of these layers, the dura mater, is particularly tough and helps protect the brain against blows. But nature cannot provide infinite protection, and it has not foreseen the demands of modern society. It did not anticipate that man would ride motorcycles at 100 miles an hour, and might hurtle over the handle-bars.

Or that children would go out on hard turf and play football. Or those workmen would walk under skyscraper construction projects where a bolt falling from the fortieth floor would develop the speed of anartillery projectile. So we need additional protection: adequate helmets for motorcyclists and athletes, steel hats for workmen exposed to possible head injuries. Parents must realize, too, that babies fall off beds and, at some stage, jump out of cribs. These must be guarded against and a baby doctor can advise. Beyond protecting the brain from injuries, you can protect it so there is no interference with its efficient operation. 

THE BRAIN AND NERVOUS SYSTEM

THE BRAIN AND NERVOUS SYSTEM 

EVERYTHING YOU does in, and every awareness and impression you have of, life is the result of activity in the brain and nervous system. To call it a remarkable system is to understate the obvious. It is so complex that scientists are only making a beginning at penetrating its mysteries. And yet enough has been determined, and it is now possible to understand sufficiently the broad outlines of the makeup and functioning of the system in health and disease, to permit you to do much to preserve its health.

THE BRAIN 

Of all things known in the universe, the human brain is, by far, the most intricate. Although it weighs only about 12 ounces on the average at birth and in an adult only about 3 pounds, its storage capacity is phenomenal. It has been estimated that the brain can store more facts, impressions, and total information than are contained in all the 9 million volumes in the Library of Congress. It's another indication of the brain's complex organization that, if necessary, you can get along with only half of it. The fact is that after removal of much of one side of the brain because of tumor, doctors, lawyers, and others have been able to carryon with their regular work.

And in one study with 62 soldiers who suffered penetrating head wounds during World War II, the men, upon being retested for intelligence, showed little or no change in scores they had made in the Army General Classification Test upon first entering service. Although at various times there has been some belief that the brain is compartmentalized, with specific areas for specific functions, the evidencemany studies is that when some brain area is damaged, another area may be able to take over its functions. 

The brain has 15 billion nerve units which permit storage of memory images and all the learning we accumulate. In addition, it has huge numbers of connections which control the more than 600 muscles in the body. Other connections into the brain from the eyes, ears, and nerves in the skin permit us to record and remember what we see, hear, feel, smell, and taste.

The brain is made up of several parts. 

The cerebrum, largest and most familiar, takes the form of two hemispheres divided by a groove. The surface, or cortex, of the cerebrum is the gray matter we hear about, formed by the cell bodies of nerve cells. Fibers from these bodies lead inward and form the white matter of the cerebrum. Some of these fibers lead to the center of the brain; others extend from front to back and from side to side; and deep in the brain, complicated junctions are formed.

 Actually, most of the fibers cross over so that one entering the brain from the left side of the body crosses to the right side of the brain, which is why the right lobe of the cerebrum controls most of the left side of the body, while the left lobe controls the right side. At the base of the cerebrum are three structures: pons, medulla, and cerebellum. 

Female Genital System

A sudden, profuse, odorous, colored, or painful discharge may indicate an infection that may not only affect the vaginal passage but could spread into the uterus, tubes, and ovaries. If such a discharge is accompanied by chills and fever, serious trouble may be developing. Such infections usually can be eradicated like magic by penicillin or other medicines, if you give a competent physician a chance to help you without delay.

 It is important to remember that infections that are readily curable with prompt, knowledgeable treatment can progress to cause sterility if neglected or if treated by a quack or on the advice of a well-meaning friend or neighbor. If they advance far enough, they may cause problems requiring surgery, including possible removal of a reproductive organ.

Remember, too, that gonorrheal vulvovaginitis in young girls can be contracted without sexual intercourse, so be certain not to neglect any discharge in a young daughter. What can a woman do to prevent venereal infection? While this is often regarded as too delicate a subject even for a book on health, the medical profession is pledged to treat and prevent disease in all people, regardless of moral status. For those women who for any reason are exposed to the risk of venereal disease, there is only one safe preventive measure to recommend: Insist that the male employ a condom during the entire time of the sexual act.

 Obviously, if the sheath is put on only just prior to male orgasm to prevent conception, there will be no protection from syphilis if the male organ has a syphilitic sore, nor will there be protection if the male has gonorrhea and his germs are present in the lubricating secretion produced at the earliest moments of male erection. In case of rape, see your doctor immediately, or go to a hospital emergency room. Prompt medical care can help prevent danger of pregnancy and also of venereal disease. It is important to note that vaginal discharge, leucorrhea, is not always serious.

Normally, a certain amount of fluid is produced to keep tissues moist. It is virtually odorless and colorless and nonirritating. Congestion, tension, and minor inflammations can increase the discharge. Germs far less dangerous than those responsible for syphilis and gonorrhea can produce infections which may become troublesome unless eradicated. Your physician must establish the cause of the infection before he can prescribe suitable treatment. That is why you should not use an anti- septic or germicidal solution as a douche unless you are under a physician's orders; you may be eradicating some, but the wrong, germs.

Tumors The female reproductive organs are subject to tumors and cancers and should be examined at regular medical checkups. At such times, your physician may well decide to take a "Pap smear," a simple, painless procedure that can establish the presence of early cancer and even a precancerous condition. Scores of thousands of women today owe their lives to the fact that their physician included this test as part of routine checkups. Any change in menstruation and any unexpected bleeding or dis- charge, especially after the menopause, should be reported immediately to your physician. These symptoms mayor may not stem from a malignant growth; when they do, the cure rate is very high if the growth is detected and treated early. 

Syphilis cure and male genital system routine care

 Routine Care

The genitals should be kept clean, free from infection. For this, an uncircumcised male can gently pull back the foreskin and wash off any hellions with soap and water as often as required to keep the penis cle.in. The genitals should be protected from blows and other injuries during football and other strenuous sports. No special food is needed for health. No medicines arc required, and non" Venereal Disease should be taken except under a doctor's orders.

 Masturbation causes no organic damage or harm; it may, however, give rise-because of feelings of guilt often associated with this practice-to emotional conflicts which may lead to phobias about syphilis or to impotence. Five venereal diseases may affect the male genital system. Syphilis is the most serious.

 Syphilis can be cured, and we urge you to read the section on this disease so you will not fail to seek medical advice if you have any reason to suspect you may have contracted syphilis. (Women, too, should understand venereal diseases.) No one except a competent physician is capable of treating the disease properly. You would be running grave risk if you depended upon a quack to even diagnose the condition. 

The fact that syphilis can be cured is no reason for carelessness, smugness, or delay. Syphilis cases in the United States and in many other countries have been increasing rapidly. One reason seems to be that many people assume they have nothing to worry about-but, left to smoulder, syphilis can have serious consequences. 

CARE OF THE URINARY SYSTEM

CARE OF THE URINARY SYSTEM 

Your kidneys do not require "flushing," "stimulation," or any of the things that patent medicines may claim to achieve. Kidney disorder may produce low back pain, and this symptom, together with any changes in the urine, should always be reported immediately to your doctor. 

Contrary to claims made for certain "kidney medicines," they cannot cure 232 / Preventive Body Care chronic pain in the back, which is seldom caused by a kidney disorder. Don't take any medication for your kidneys except on a doctor's orders. Some causes of kidney stones (renal calculi) are beyond control.

 But prevention or prompt treatment of infection is helpful in avoiding stone formation. Another important preventive measure is maintenance of adequate urine flow. When the urine becomes highly concentrated be- cause of excessive perspiration during hot weather or exertion, there is increased tendency to form stones and to develop infection. Drink plenty of water if you perspire heavily.

 A floating (movable) kidney is usually not serious, although it may cause discomfort. Bright's disease (also called nephritis) is a potentially serious illness (page 601). Whenever the urine appears bloody, wine- colored, smoky, or at all unusual, it may be a sign of Bright's disease which, as a rule, causes no pain. Always see your doctor immediately if you notice any such urine changes. 

See him immediately, too, if the urine should appear to be cloudy or pus-laden. Inflammation of the kidneys is called pyelitis. If treated early, this and many other kidney disorders can be completely cured. If not cured, kidney infections can slowly damage these vital organs, leading to high blood pressure and uremic poisoning. 

The bladder is subject to infection (cystitis) and inflammation. These conditions usually yield to treatment with a suitable antibiotic prescribed by your physician.

 Never use a "bladder pacifier" or other home remedy. Infections can be the cause of incontinence, the inability to control urination. Frequency of urination can be a symptom of a disorder such as diabetes. Difficult urination may be caused by a urethral stricture or narrowing. Always consult a physician if you experience frequent, difficult, or painful urination; don't attempt to treat the condition yourself. It often is traceable to an easily cured inflammation, but it may stern from a dis- ease such as prostate gland enlargement in men (page 639). Stones can also form in the urinary bladder; never take any home remedy to "dis- solve" them. If necessary, stones can be removed by surgery. 

Urinary Bladder

THE BLADDER

 A tube, or ureter, leads from each kidney to the urinary bladder. The bladder empties through the urethra, a tube leading to an external open- ing called the meatus. The bladder, which functions as a collecting and temporary storage point for urine, expands to accommodate increasing amounts. With the accumulation of about half a pint, reflex contractions lead to a desire to urinate, or micturate. 

The contractions stimulate pressure receptors in the muscles of the bladder wall, from which nervous impulses go to the brain. When it is convenient to urinate, the brain sends out signals which cause the bladder's external sphincter to relax.

The signals also set up a whole series of other events, including holding of the breath, forcing of the diaphragm down, and contraction of the abdominal wall, which in- crease pressure on the bladder and help it void its accumulated urine. Such is the complexity of the process that it is hardly any wonder that most children are walking before they become able to urinate with con- trolled competence. 

Normal daily production of urine may range from two to three pints. In some diseases, such as diabetes insipidus, the quantity is increased; in others, fever and diarrhea decrease it. Tea, coffee, alcohol, excitement, and nervousness increase urine output; hot water decreases it. Whatever the actual liquid output, a day's urine generally contains about two ounces of solids. 

THE GENITOURINARY SYSTEM

THE GENITOURINARY SYSTEM

EVERY BODY cell not only must build its substance and obtain its energy from nutrients supplied in the food you eat; it must get rid of wastes. And all cells deliver their waste products continuously to the blood. In turn, the blood carries them to various centers for excretion. 

Thus, carbon dioxide and some water in the form of vapor are removed from the blood in the lungs. Salts and additional water pour out through the skin's sweat glands. Other wastes, including water, salt, urea, and uric acid-leave the blood in the kidneys. Blood enters the kidneys through the renal arteries and leaves through the renal veins and, in circulating within the two kidneys, goes through a fabulous filtering system. 

The kidneys-each about 4-1/2" long, 2-1/2" wide, 1-1/2" thick, and weighing 5 ounces-are located deep in the abdomen at about the level of the lowest ("floating") ribs. Essentially, they are filters containing intricate plumbing-a system of tiny tubes called nephrons whose combined length in each kidney is about 140 miles. To the naked eye, a single nephron would resemble a grain of sand. Under a microscope, it has the look of a twisted worm with a huge head. The head, called the glomerulus, is covered with a network of capillaries that carry blood continuously into the glomerulus. 

The tail is the tubule. In a healthy kidney, as blood enters a glomerulus, a fluid is separated from it. The fluid contains neither red, nor white blood cells nor only a trace of large protein molecules. The fluid passes along the tubule, and about 99 percent of the water, amino acids, proteins, glucose, and minerals needed by the body are returned to the bloodstream. The remaining fluid, with its content of waste materials, is eliminated from the body as urine. Every 24 hours, the kidneys filter about 200 quarts of fluid and salts.

One or two quarts of the waste go to the bladder and are flushed out of the body. Actually, the kidneys have a tremendous reserve capacity; they could clean nine times more fluid than they are called upon to do, and for this reason one healthy kidney can readily serve the body's needs. The kidneys function to maintain the correct balance between the salts and water of the body, to get rid of any toxic substances, and to keep the body in correct mineral balance. For example, too much potassium in the blood could stop the heart quite as effectively as a bullet. 

Stomach and digestive problems and preventive care

 1. LUMINATION

 Choose a time, shortly to defecate whether or not you have "the urge." Allow ten minutes. Relax, be comfortable, read if you like-the important thing is not to feel tense or hurried. Prop your feet on a footstool so your knees are close to your chest. If you choose to go before breakfast, it will help to drink a glass or two of fluid upon getting out of bed; it can be warm or cool water, fruit juice, tea, or coffee. Teaching your bowels to move regularly is a little like training yourself to wake up at a given hour every morning; it can be done, with patience, and once acquired the habit persists.

 2. DIET. 

The residue of foods you eat is easier to eliminate if it contains some roughage in the form of fibers, lubricants in the form of fats or oils, and fluid. These should be included in the diet of healthy people. (In some disease states, there may be an inability to tolerate roughage; in such cases, a physician will so advise.) To cure or prevent constipation, make certain your diet includes: For breakfast: 1/2 to 1 glass of tomato, grapefruit, prune, or orange juice. 

Also include one item from each of the following, (a) through (e): (a) Mixed dried or stewed fruits-prunes, apricots, figs (b) Cooked, whole-grain cereals with milk-barley, brown rice, oats, wheat (c) Margarine (d) Whole-grain bread (e) Beverage For lunch, dinner or supper, some of the following: Green leafy vegetable--beet greens, spinach, escarole, lettuce, turnip greens, dandelion greens, mustard greens Baked potatoes (eat the skins) Margarine, salad oils Dried or stewed fruits-especially for dessert at evening meal Take two glasses of fluid between meals and at least eight all told during the day. 

Drink an extra amount of water in summer because part of it is lost in perspiration.

3. EXERCISE. 

Strong abdominal muscles help elimination. If you do not have a firm, well-toned abdominal wall, start the exercises described on page 89. If your job requires much sitting and very little physical activity, you should indulge in regular sports or other forms of exercise. You will feel better generally as well as have fewer tendencies toward constipation.

 4. LIVE SENSIBLY. 

Try as much as you can to avoid the stresses and strains of modern living. Get relaxation to help temper those stresses and strains. Don't worry about constipation. If your physician gives you a clean bill of health on your regular visits, and you follow our suggestions for home checkups (page 33), constipation is not going to harm your health. Usually, these suggestions are enough to prevent or cure constipation. If they are not, and failure to move the bowels causes real discomfort, you may:

5. TAKE AN ENEMA. 

Use a pint of warm water containing a level tea- spoonful of table salt. If you use an enema bag, hold it about two feet above the toilet seat; if you use a bulb, do not press it too hard-the water should flow under gentle pressure. This should help soften the stool so it can be passed easily. You may take an enema every day-but remember that this is a crutch and the sooner you discard it, the better. If an enema does not help, your physician can show you how to insert olive oil into the rectum at night through a catheter, which will soften the stool and make it easier to pass in the morning.

6. LAXATIVES. 

If you cannot take an enema, use a mild laxative such as petrolatum and agar, aromatic cascara sagrada, or milk of magnesia. Do not do this until you have given your bowels a chance to work by themselves. An important step in curing constipation may be to stop taking all laxatives and cathartics. Strange as it seems, laxatives are frequently the cause of constipation and seldom are necessary in its cure. As noted above, mineral oil may be of value. A final warning: Don't give a laxative to a child, and don't take one yourself, if there is any fever, nausea, pain, or general feeling of illness associated with the constipation. It can cause fatal consequences if the condition is caused by appendicitis.

Stomach distress

This can be alleviated by a teaspoonful of bicarbonate of soda in water or by use of a buffered type of aspirin. If you are truly sensitive to aspirin, you may find Tylenol a useful substitute. If you are occasionally, not habitually, constipated, it is safe to take a mild laxative such as a teaspoonful or two of milk of magnesia. 

Avoid regular dosing with any laxative or cathartic. Be certain to see your physician if you find yourself beginning to suffer persistently or repeatedly from any of the following symptoms: nausea, vomiting, excessive belching, fullness or burning sensations in the abdomen, cramps, constipation, or diarrhea. Be certain to see him immediately if you pass stools that are blood-streaked, blackish, colorless, or foul- smelling. The liver in a healthy body requires no particular care.

 It certainly does not need to be "stimulated" by such medicines as those claiming to "increase the flow of bile." But there are several things you can do to prevent damage to the liver. You can protect it from the harm that can result from excessive intake of alcoholic beverages and from poisons such as carbon tetrachloride to which you may be exposed at work or in the course of hobbies requiring use of solvents. Remember that glue sniffing, engaged in by youngsters seeking a "thrill," can harm the liver. 

Both normal weight and balanced diet are necessary to keep the liver healthy. Liver damage, such as that from a virus infection, may produce jaundice-a yellowing of the skin and particularly of the whites of the eyes. Jaundice should be reported immediately to your physician. Some viruses that cause liver infection are transmitted by blood on syringes or needles. That is why drug addicts who share equipment have a high rate of liver disease. Alcohol and ordinary boiling do not kill the viruses; the very high temperature of an autoclave type of sterilizer is needed. 

Do not use someone else's injection equipment in administering insulin, for example. Other viruses affecting the liver are transmitted hand to mouth, and so it is vital to wash hands with soap and water after passing a stool, before each meal, and after trips and contacts on buses, trains, and other public conveyances and places. Infection may affect the gallbladder. Gallstones sometimes cause considerable pain and may block the flow of bile, leading to jaundice and infer lion of the liver and gallbladder.